Unit 4 - Theoretical Framework of Rural Urban Linkage

1. Central Place Theory

The concept of Central Place Theory (CPT) is the basis for understanding growth of urban centers and their relations with hinterlands.
This theory is concerned with the discovery of order in spacing population clusters and settlement in landscape.
It is an attempt to explain the spatial arrangement, size, and number of settlements.
The theory was originally published in 1933 by a German geographer Walter Christaller who studied the settlement patterns in southern Germany.
In the flat landscape of southern Germany Christaller noticed that towns of a certain size were roughly equidistant.
By examining and defining the functions of the settlement structure and the size of the hinterland he found it possible to model the pattern of settlement locations using geometric shapes.

Assumptions of the theory

An isotropic (all flat) surface
An evenly distributed population
Evenly distributed resources
Similar purchasing power of all consumers and consumers will patronize nearest market
Transportation costs equal in all directions and proportional to distance
No excess profits (Perfect competition)
One big market center serves another 6 market centers including itself.

Components

Range

Range refers to the average maximum distance people will travel to purchase goods and services or it refers to the distance that the customer is willing to travel in order to get goods and services.
Upper range limit is the spatial index determined by the farthest distance from the central place where goods and services can be obtained.
This outlines the market areas for the central places where in lower range limit refers to the minimum distance to get goods and services which positively affects the central place.

Threshold

This is the quantity index determined by the minimum number of people required to support the function in the central place or the minimum population that is required to bring about the provision of certain good or services to the central places.

Analysis of the theory

According to this theory a Central Place is a settlement which provides one or more services for the population living around it. Simple basic services are said to be of low order while specialized services are said to be of high order.
Having a high order service implies there are low order services around it, but not vice versa.
Settlements which provide low order services are said to be low order settlements. Settlements that provide high order services are said to be high order settlements.
The sphere of influence is the area under influence of the Central Place. From these two concepts the lower and upper limits of goods or services can be found.
With the upper and the lower limits, it is possible to see how the central places are arranged in an imaginary area.

1. The bigger central place can provide goods and services to other six market centers in hexagonal shape

On the basis of homogenous areas with equal access in all directions under perfect competition central place provide the service to the hinterland.
The central places that provide goods and services to the surrounding areas are located in triangular pattern which creates a hexagonal from a hinterland region.
The region will be filled up with a full of hexagons in a contact form without overlapping between hexagons on living areas conserved.
The above figure illustrates the hexagonal hinterland shape of settlement.

2. Marketing Principle (k3)

A big central place serves to 6 small hinterland areas. The people of smaller central areas don’t go totally to the big centers. Only 1/3 people go to the central places.
1/3+1/3+1/3+1/3+1/3+1/3 = 6/3 =2
Where 1 is the population of the central place, 2+1 =3
So, this principle also known as k3 principle.

3. Transportation Principle (k4)

This principle depends upon the transportation cost. Half of the hinterland places depend upon the big central places and other half go to the next big central places.
Where, 1/2+1/2+1/2+1/2+1/2+1/2 =6/2=3
So, 3+1=4
When Central places are arranged according to the traffic principle, the lower order centers are located at the midpoint of each side of the hexagon rather than at the corner. Thus the transport principle produces a hierarchy organized in a k=4 arrangement.

4. Administrative Principle (k7)

In small market centre there are no more offices. But in big central the administrative units are established which provides a service to 6 small centers along with itself too. So it is called k7 principle.

In this regard, August Losch independently formulated the central place theory in 1939. His central place theory appears as an elaboration of the work of Christaller’s central place theory. Losch agreed with what christaller proposes about triangular arrangement of central places and hexagonal hinterland region under perfect market competition.

Losch developed bottom up approach in the theory who unlike christalelr’s hypothesis all three in isolated series argues that k=3 is the minimum threshold and there after the succession continues through k=4 and k=7, that take place in whole series continuously with the numerical progression of 3.4.7.9.12.13.16 and so on.

Criticism of the Theory

The theory is far away from reality because of isotropic region.
The critics do not agree the k values.
Size and spacing of settlement cannot always be similar.
Hexagonal shape of hinterland is not accepted by the critics.
Central place of equal size and level can’t give the same type of function.

2. Gateway Model

This model was propounded by Burghardt (1971) and Hirth(1978). This model provides a framework in explaining the evolutions of town and their links with hinterland in rural urban linkage and rural development.
This theory is highly applicable in those countries having heterogeneous resources and their potentials.
The theory for town development are quite different from those of classical central place theory in terms of production, location of gateway centre, functions, shape and size of the hinterland and hierarchy of gateway centre.
Fundamentally, gateway centre and their strategic location are usually located at the entrance to the extended hinterland through which gateway centers tend to make a concentration of hinterland with national core.
Locationally, gateway centers initially tend to be located at a site of considerable point or at the node of transport line.
Functionally, gateway towns tend to develop in response to the long distance trade or the setting of sparsely populated frontier areas.
In this regard, a gateway center is connected by transport lines that radiate from the center outward usually in one direction to connect individual centers along the lines of communication.
In case of extensive and productive hinterlands many large central places may eventually develop and displace the gateway center systems.
Improvement in the mode of transportation can also bring about a substantive change in the location, characteristics and the hierarchy of gateway towns.

The theory can be analyzed by the following figure:

High choice of employment in towns and whole selling.
A gateway centre does not have compact services area like that of classical central place.
In a hierarchy of gateway centre it has primary, secondary and tertiary linkage and gateways accordingly.
Gateway centre system may develop change and displace in terms of redistribution of population, resources, services and facilities.
While applying this theory in Nepal its urban centers are typically founded at the conjunction of major foot trails and major roads and commonly occur where bridges funnel traffic to a single common point. Road head communities such as Dumre bazaar and neighboring Bimal nagar both in Tanahun district and similar towns such as Damauli and Muglin on the Prithvi highway east and west of Dumre, respectively are examples of gateway towns.
It is in such gateway communities that one observes the break of bulk point which arrives by truck from India and Terai via pokhara and Kathmandu respectively.
It is such gateway communities which serves as the primary nodes in an intricate network of interior transport routes serviced by human porters and or in a few instances by pack of animals.
So in Nepal its urban centers can be identified as primary, secondary and tertiary gateway centers on the basis of commercial importance, flow of goods, transport network system and topographical situation.
Primary gateways: Birgunj, Biratnagar, Nepalgunj, Dhangadi, Siddarthanagar, Janakpur.
Secondary gateways: Dharan, Hetauda, Butwal etc.
Tertiary gateways: Ilam, Chainpur, Tansen etc and other market towns, villages’ hamlets and rural markets.
By virtue of location, function, linkage and size the towns of Kathmandu valley and Pokhara in the hills acts higher order gateway centers while the valley of towns are dependent to primary gateways as Kathmandu – Birgunj- Biratnagar.

3. Urban Land Use Model

The Von Thunen model of agricultural land use was created by farmer and amateur economist J.H. Von Thunen (1783-1850) in 1826. Von Thunen's model was created before industrialization. He published this theory after 40 years’ experience in the field of Northern Germany. Thus this theory is based on the empirical practical study.
The theory has tried to explain about the use of the land outside the town and around the town in terms of agricultural activities. What kinds of goods are produced? The theory talks about a homogenous type of agricultural land use pattern.

Assumptions of the Theory:

The city is located centrally within an "Isolated State."
The Isolated State is surrounded by wilderness.
The land is completely flat and has no rivers or mountains.
Soil quality and climate are consistent.
Farmers in the Isolated State transport their own goods to market via oxcart, across land, directly to the central city. There are no roads and only one means of transport is used. The horse driven carts were the single means of transportation.
Farmers behave rationally to maximize profits.
Transportation cost is proportional to the distance.
There is single market center which serves the surrounding area and produced goods are sold to the single market center.
Uniform distribution of agricultural labor cost or wages.
The factors that control the agricultural production or land use system are:
Demand of commodities
Distance and transport relation
Land rent or economic rent.

Analysis of the theory

1. Six concentric land use Zone

Zone first: This zone is used for vegetable farming and milk production. This zone is for bulky and perishable production such as horticulture and dairy production.
Zone 2^nd: Forestry, firewood and timber production has done in this stage. This type of production takes high delivery cost i.e. transport or travel cost.
Zone 3^rd: This zone is used for intensive farming such as potatoes, barley etc.
Zone 4^th: In this zone mixed farming is done.
Zone 5^th: This zone is similar to the 4^th zone but it is less intensive.
Zone 6^th: Extensive cattle grazing, livestock farming are done in this zone.

2. Relationship between distance and land rent and transportation cost

The model explains that there is an interactive relationship between town and its hinterland where as the town offers household goods and services to the hinterland areas.
Likewise hinterland areas supply farm products to the town of center.
This theory assumes that while town is one of the factors of agricultural development where the producers adjust accordingly, land rent or value is a major factor to determine the intensity of agricultural activities around the center.
Land rent decreases proportionately to the distance from urban centers. A uniform transportation system results in a transportation cost directly proportional to the distance from the town.
Juxtaposing these two factors together, exert influence upon the spatial pattern of land use can be analyzed.

3. Calculation of economic rent from different options of agricultural production

In his theory of "The Isolated State", he started out from Adam Smith's idea of "economic man": that the farmer is expected to maximize his profit ("economic rent") from his farmland.
Von Thünen, as a landlord, knew that such returns depend on an optimal use of the land surfaces and the transport costs. In concentrating on the effects of these two variables on profits, removal of other factors results in a homogeneous - and isolated - state:
A circular, completely undulating plane with a single, dominant market in the center and no interactions with the outside. The economy in the surrounding rural area would have to rearrange itself according to economic behavior in such a way that each industry brings optimal profit in:
Transport cost depends on the distance from the market and different kind of products. The gain from farming per unit area (location rent) decreases with increasing distance from the market.
The minimum price of a commodity is calculated by location rent, transport costs and fixed production costs - the profit is then the difference between the costs and the fixed market price.
Idealized pattern of agricultural land use zones in von Thünen's model as following equation:

LR = E (P-Q) - EFK

Where, LR = Land return, economic rent or profit

E = production per unit of land

P = Market price per unit of commodity

Q = production cost per unit of commodity

F = transport rate per unit of commodity

K = Distance

Criticism of the Theory

Isotropic surface is not realistic. Land form may be of same type but the fertility may differ. So the critics claim that the theory has some impossible features presented.
The theory is based on single market which is unrealistic.
There should be different means of transportation.
The theory has ignored non-economic factors.
This theory is not applicable in present day’s real life having improved science and technology.
Ignorance of urban industries and services.

4 - Core Periphery Linkage

The core periphery model was propounded by John Friedman in 1966, which is based on his study in Venezuela of South America.
This model can be used to interpret the nature and type of urban rural relations.
This model is based on the idea that as one region or state expands in economic prosperity; it must engulf regions nearby to ensure ongoing economic and political success.
The area of high growth or former high growth becomes known as the core, and the neighboring area is the periphery. Cores and peripheries can be towns, cities, states, or nations.
The conventional core-periphery model of development (Friedman, 1966) tries to represent the emergence of an urban system in four major stages which goes on par with the development of transportation. From an initial situation of inequalities, disparities are reduced and a functionally integrated urban system emerges.

1. Stage I- (Pre-industrial)

This stage refers to an underdeveloped region characterized by the prevalence of primary production activities.
The pre-industrial (agricultural) society is with localized economies and a small scale settlement structure. Each element is fairly isolated, dispersed and characterized by low mobility.
Few urban centers evolve independently whose main function is to provide services and administer economic activities.
All urban centers are more or less similar to each other. Most of the people involved in agricultural activities and it is the initial stage of development process. Among the few urban centers, there was no interaction with other market centers.

2. Stage II- (Transitional \ incipient)

This is the beginning of the industrialization process. Investors and industrialists are attracted to urban centers at this stage. They will be attracted to the most productive and potential urban areas.
The concentration of the economy in the core begins as a result of capital accumulation and industrial growth.
The specific reasons behind this concentration is not too clear, location (better access) being a significant factor, but the fact remains that a dominant center emerges within an urban system to become its growth pole.
Trade and mobility increase, but within a pattern dominated by the core even if overall mobility remains low.
Among the numerous examples of such a phase is the early industrialization of Great Britain in the late 18th century or the beginning of the colonial incorporation of regions in Latin America, Africa or Asia.
Those concentrations of business and industries in the core area results the incipient stage to development. The differences between core and periphery are visualized.
The core area transformed into well facilitated and industrialized centre where as periphery remains constant and will have declining economic stage.

3. Stage III- (Industrial maturation)

This is the 3^rd stage of the core periphery linkage model. The gap between core and periphery is widened in this stage. Maximum level of industrial development in core area occurs.
With the governmental intervention, political and regional consciousness, it is possible to stimulate growth and development in the periphery by the process of decentralization through a number of peripherical sub-centers. Periphery areas were not touched by industrialization in this stage.
So, through a process or economic growth and diffusion other growth centers appear.
The main reasons for deconcentration are increasing production costs (mainly labor and land) in the core area.
This diffusion is linked with increased interactions between elements of the urban system and the construction of transport infrastructures.

4. Stage 4 (Post-industrial \ Mass consumption)

This is the 4^th stage of core periphery linkage model. The urban system becomes fully integrated and inequalities are reduced significantly. The distribution of economic activities creates a specialization and a division of labor linked with intense flows along high capacity transport corridors.
Well developed integrated system of core and other small rural centers are interlinked in this stage.
Interdependent relationship between core and periphery is highly developed.
The goods produced in a centre are not confined within that centre. They will be distributed in all centers because of good linkage of transportation, communication and other facilities

Conclusion

From the above interpretation, the nature of rural urban relations can be identified as independent, highly dependent and interdependent of symbolic relation during the process of spatial economic development.
Independent rural urban relation is observed particularly in the predominant of agricultural economy. Most of the rural areas particularly in accessible tracts under extreme remote situation in developing country may have this type of relationship.
Highly dependent rural urban relation has been observed due to rapid industrialization and colonization by the European in the 3^rd world countries.
Interdependent rural urban relation is expected between the rural and urban areas for balanced regional development. There is existence of symbolic relationship for mutual benefits. This is possible through two way interaction process between rural and urban area.

5 - Spatial Development Models

1. Growth Pole / Center model

This model assumes development of a region as a function of national economic development. It is propounded by French Economist Francois in1955.
The proponent of growth pole concept is that regional growth is promoted mainly by the capacity of a region to produce goods and services demanded by markets located outside the region.
The main notion of the growth pole concept is that economic progress does not appear everywhere at the same time and that once it has appeared powerful forces make for a spatial concentration of economic growth around initial starting points.
Perhaps the most significant aspect of growth pole is the belief that development spreads over surrounding areas as the result of growth.
Assumptions:
A region does not grow economically at the same rate overall to its regions/periphery.
The centre intends to grow more rapidly at a point.
Most of the infrastructure required for economic growth which needs investment of capital, resources and manpower.
It leads industries, services, and occupations etc which pulls like a gravity.

Types of impact of Growth Pole

a. Trickledown Effect/ Forward effect

The theory suggests that by concentrating investment in a few carefully selected centers, development would either spontaneously or by inducement i.e. trickle down throughout the region as the result of growth in those centers.
This effect brings positive impact in growth poles. Development activities are distributed to sub-centers from the main growth pole or it brings services from larger centers to smaller centers.
As a result whole region develops.
Spread effects covers:
Increase in investment periphery.
Employment generation which promotes marginal productivity of labor and per capita consumption.
Expansion of industrial activities.
Diffusion of innovation/ technology towards the periphery.

b. Backwash Effect

Growth centers may in fact set in a motion a set of negative effects which may not impoverish the surrounding region.
The negative effect of the process of development is said backwash effect.
It causes the flow of labor, capital and resources towards the growth pole with high discrimination.
It is also said as polarization effect which creates the following impacts:

a. Inability to compete with center in manufacturing sectors by periphery.

b. Raw materials and other sources are concentrated to the centre.

c. Migration of the best manpower or brain drain to the centre.

d. Monopolistic market

e. Other centers deprived from opportunities

f. High gap between two centers

2. Agropolitan Model

The Agropolitan model to rural development in China was originated with the period of Mao Tse Tung during early 1960s.
This approach got revitalized in late 1970s in the work of Friedman and Douglas 1975.
This model believes that rural development is possible only after the progressive agricultural development.
The government should pay proper attention on agriculture sector from initial stage.
It is the basic needs strategy for territorial development through bottom up planning process, where agriculture is main source of livelihood.

Assumptions

The whole area of a country or village cannot develop at once. Only smaller sectors are taken for agriculture development which promotes rural development.
Daily consuming goods are brought inside from urban centers.
Agricultural society is densely populated.
Almost absence of industries in those rural areas because most of the industries are located in urban centers.
Such conditions lead to inequality in economic activities in agricultural area and urban centers.

Analysis

There are three approaches of this model to implement programs for rural development:
i. Rational distribution of wealth available in the territory. t E.g. Land, water, forest.
Ii. Produced wealth is confined within the territory.
Input, 100% where, 80% distributed within team (Machineries, tools, technologies & seeds) & 20% saving used for social needs.
In output, 96 % within team and 4% tax.
Iii. Reduction of discrimination of social power.
10-12 people- a team
10-12 team- a brigade
10-12 brigade- a commune

3. UFRD Model Urban Functioning in Rural Development

The UFRD approach has emerged during late 1970s as an integrated spatial development based on a series of pilot projects undertaken by USAID in Philippines, Bolivia and Upper Volta.
This approach assumes that different sized urban centers with different magnitude of functions in a region are needed for rural regional development.
This approach basically concerns with the rural service center planning primarily designed for providing four functions:
Collection of agricultural surpluses and marketing facilities
Distribution of essential farm inputs (fertilizer, tools, implements and credits)
Provision of services and facilities for agro- processing
Provision of basic human needs (services and facilities)
Other functions
Emphasis on strengthening market towns for agricultural goods and other rural products and distribution of services and facilities.
Creation of new rural employment opportunities in agro-processing and agro-business, small-scale manufacturing.

6 - Rural Urban Migration Theory (Todaro’s Model)

Background

Rural urban migration is one of the most important measures of rural urban linkage in developing countries.
It has both positive and negative implications in economic and social development and environmental condition in both rural and urban area.
Rural urban migration has received particular attention in urban economic development of developing countries.
Rapid rural urban migration is thought to be desirable process in which surplus labour is gradually withdrawn from traditional agriculture to provide cheap manpower to fuel a growing modern industrial sector.
The rural urban migration theory was propounded by M.P. Todaro in 1960.
The migration model of Todari concerns with describing the process of migration from rural to urban areas.

Assumption:

This model assumed that migration is based primarily on individual migrant’s (source- rural area) own rational economic calculations for movement despite there is high urban unemployment in destination (urban) area.
The migration takes place as a result of urban-rural differences in expected rather than actual earnings.
The model assumes that an average unskilled or semi-skilled worker has a choice between being a farm labourer for an annual average real income (x1) which is for less than migrating to the city where a worker with his skill or education background can obtain wage employment yielding an annual income (x2). This gives a clear income differences which is a principal factor for rural people to migrate.
The worker seek higher paying urban job but unfortunately there is problem of unemployment or underemployment in urban are as or relative scarcity of labour in urban market. This is resulted from accelerated rate of rural in-migrants in urban area as compared to absorption capacity of urban-industrial sector.
The higher paying job for rural people is not possible because rural labour generally lacks high skilled knowledge.
Rural people migrate even though expected urban income during initial period might lower than expected rural income.
Migration continues even if the urban employment rate were very low than expected.

Push Factor	Pull Factor
(origin)	(destination)
Poverty	Facilities
Unemployment	Infrastructure
Lack of Facilities	Opportunities
Family Pressure etc.	Employment

Problems

Chronic and serious problem of unemployment & surplus urban labour force in developing countries.
Development programmers in rural areas such as: irrigation, cottage industries, infrastructure development still lacks. To increase employment opportunities these programs can be helpful.
Urban management: quality of urban life, housing density, transport cost, traffic, urban utilities cost of drinking water services etc. may help to solve the migration problem in urban areas.

Old Questions for Discussion

Examine critically the service center approach undertaken in Nepal to strengthen service delivery system. 15 marks
Compare a note on threshold and range of central place and nesting hierarchy. 10 marks
Point out the theoretical basis of central place concept in the context of rural-urban linkage. 15 marks
What are the characteristic features of hinterlands of gateway model and industrial maturation stage of core-periphery linkage. 10 marks
Why people move from rural to urban areas? Describe it with respect to Todaro’s migration model in the context of developing countries. 15 marks
Compare and contrast between central place theory and gateway model in describing urban rural relations. 15 marks
Outline briefly Von Thunen’s Model of urban land uses. Is the model applicable to describe the land uses surrounding urban areas of Nepal? Explain it.
UFRD model 5 marks
Explain the theoretical basis of Chirstallers central place model. Discuss it in the context of rural urban linkages in Nepal.
Explain briefly Von Thunen urban land use model. Is the model useful to explain urban land uses in Nepal? Give reasons. 15 marks
Outline briefly the rural urban migration model of Todaro. Elucidate it in the context of rural urban migration in Nepal.15 marks
Define gateway model. Explain briefly different gateway centers of Nepal. 10 marks
Range and threshold concepts of central place model 5 marks.
Define centrality. Discuss the theoretical bases of central place theory of Christaller. 15 marks
Discuss the spread effect and backwash effect concept of growth pole center model. 10 marks
Discuss gateway model. How far is its applicable in the context of Nepal. 15 marks
Describe critically the service center approach to rural urban linkage and rural development in the context of Nepal. 10 marks
Outline briefly Christaller’s central place theory with reference to market center development and hinterland relation in Nepal. 15 marks
Discuss critically the Agropolitan model for rural development in Nepal. 10 marks